Bushfires in the ACT

4.1
Overview of Black Summer

The 2019–20 bushfire season, also known as Black Summer, was one of the worst on record for the ACT and across much of Southeast Australia (Figure 1). The fires were connected to climate change, which is contributing to more severe fire seasons that are starting earlier and lasting longer (see Climate change).

Over Black Summer, 24.3 million hectares were burnt across Australia. This resulted in the loss of lives, property and cultural heritage sites, as well as severely impacting the health and wellbeing of human communities across the country. The fires have had a devastating impact on Australia’s environment, with large-scale impacts on vegetation and ecosystems and the death or displacement of billions of animals. Recovery from the 2019–20 bushfire season will take decades.

4.1.1
ACT’s 2020 bushfires

The information presented in this section comes from the Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate unless otherwise stated. This includes: ACT Bushfire and Flood Recovery Plan; Orroral Valley Fire Rapid Risk Assessment Namadgi National Park; ACT Government website Recovering from the 2020 bushfires; and ACT Parks and Conservation, 2023, 2020 Orroral Valley Bushfire: Reconstruction and analysis of fire spread, collation of fire weather and indices, photographical records, and imagery, prepared by Owen Salkin (Natural Systems Analytics), Unpublished report.

The 2019–20 bushfire season significantly impacted the ACT, most notably through the burning of native ecosystems and biodiversity, extreme levels of air pollution from bushfire smoke, and damage and destruction of cultural heritage sites.

In January and February 2020, nearly 90,000 hectares — around 40% of the ACT — were burnt by the Beard and Orroral Valley bushfires (see Fire). These bushfires were the largest and most severe since the devastating fires of 2003 burnt 164,000 hectares (70% of the ACT).

The severity and size of the ACT’s bushfires were influenced by the extreme temperatures over the 2019–20 summer (see Climate change). On 4 January 2020, the ACT experienced its hottest day on record at 44°C. The mean maximum and minimum temperatures over the summer were the third warmest on record. In addition, the ACT, along with much of NSW, was experiencing the lowest rainfall on record for much of 2019. The combination of extreme temperatures and low rainfall provided optimal conditions for the bushfires.

Weather conditions also led to concerning fire severity risk conditions for the ACT prior to the fires (see Fire). The risk conditions were particularly elevated in the month leading up to the Orroral Valley fire and for the first days of the fire. The Fire Danger Rating included two catastrophic and two extreme risk days, seven severe days, ten very high and nine high risk days. Such conditions significantly increased the severity and spread of the Orroral Valley fire.

The ACT’s first fire of concern for the 2019–20 bushfire season was the Beard bushfire, which burnt around 424 hectares. The fire started on Wednesday 22 January in Pialligo Redwood Park and threatened properties in Beard, Oaks Estate and West Queanbeyan. The fire was brought under control on Thursday 23 January and declared out on Tuesday 28 January. The fire led to the closure of Canberra Airport for a day.

4.1.2
The Orroral Valley bushfire

The most significant 2020 bushfire in the ACT was the Orroral Valley fire (Figure 2). The fire and its ignition are the subject of a coronial inquiry which commenced in June 2023. 

Key dates in the Orroral Valley fire were:

4.2
Impacts of the Orroral Valley bushfire on the environment

4.2.1
Overview of impacts

The Orroral Valley bushfire caused devastating impacts on the ACT’s natural environment. The fires burnt around 80% (82,700 hectares) of Namadgi National Park, and 22% (1,450 hectares) of Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve, which are home to critical ecosystems and habitats for many species, including endangered plants and animals. Namadgi National Park and Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve contain habitats ranging from grassy plains through to snow gum forests and alpine meadows. There have been more than 700 species of plants, 222 species of vertebrate animals, 15 threatened species and over 40 rare or uncommon species recorded to date in Namadgi and Tidbinbilla. The burnt area also included significant areas of the High Country Bogs and Associated Fens threatened ecological community. Approximately 90% of the Orroral Valley fire footprint had also burnt in the 2003 bushfires just 17 years earlier.

The impact of fire is greater as fire intensity increases. Whilst fire intensity varied during the Orroral Valley bushfire, there were significant areas burnt at high severity. Over 20% of the burn area was estimated to be at a high to very high fire intensity. Such burns consume all ground vegetation and tree crowns, and increase the likelihood of post-fire impacts such as debris flows and soil erosion. These impacts lengthen the recovery time for some vegetation species and, in extreme cases, may decrease the chances of recovery for species with lower fire tolerances.

The environmental impacts of the Orroral Valley bushfire have been magnified by the prolonged and severe drought conditions that preceded the fire. The hot and dry conditions had already placed a significant amount of stress on flora and fauna populations, and ecological communities. This may have consequences for post-fire recovery in some areas.

The recovery of native ecosystems and biodiversity will take many decades. In addition to the loss of millions of plants and animals, many of those that survived the fire are greatly threatened by post-fire conditions. The destruction of vegetation reduces the availability of habitat and food resources, increases the risk of weed invasions, increases the risk of predation by invasive animals, and increases grazing competition from invasive herbivores. These all reduce the ability of native ecosystems and biodiversity to recover from severe fires and, in extreme cases, can lead to significantly altered native plant and animal communities.

The Orroral Valley bushfire has also significantly impacted aquatic ecosystems. After the fire, high intensity drought-breaking rains fell on recently burnt areas, leading to sedimentation from increased erosion, the deposit of ash and other burnt materials into waters, and the loss of riparian vegetation.

Fire suppression impacts

Fire suppression activities are necessary to prevent the unchecked spread of fire and for the protection of important assets such as water supply catchments, critical ecosystems, rural lands and buildings, infrastructure, and cultural sites. However, they are also a source of post-fire environmental impacts.

Fire suppression activities for the Orroral Valley bushfire included approximately 577 kms of control lines associated with the fire operations (the majority of these were along existing fire trails), 20 kms of control lines in agricultural lands for infrastructure protection, and 2.17 million litres of fire retardant dropped across 46 kms of the burn area. These suppression activities will all impact on biodiversity and ecosystem health through the loss of native vegetation, erosion, increased opportunities for invasive plants, the introduction of toxic chemicals (from fire retardants), and water quality impacts.

It is important that fire suppression areas are subject to rehabilitation works and ongoing monitoring to determine any long-term impacts.

Overview of biodiversity recovery

It is important that post-fire threats are managed to improve the recovery of native ecosystems and biodiversity. The ACT is undertaking a range of activities to assist natural recovery processes. These include:

• threatened species surveys
• identifying threats to biodiversity (predation, invasive species, water quality for aquatic species)
• identifying risks to ecosystems (fire-sensitive communities, hollow-bearing trees, aquatic and riparian habitat)
• restoring and protecting the ACT’s alpine sphagnum bogs and associated fens (a threatened ecological community)
• post-fire protection of high priority threatened flora species in Namadgi National Park
• protecting native ecosystems from invasive plants
• supporting frog survival and recovery
• protecting the endangered Broad-toothed Rat (Mastacomys fuscus) and assisted recolonisation post-fire 
• detecting, monitoring and controlling invasive predator and herbivore species
• research into the post-fire impacts of invasive predators and herbivores on threatened native species
• maintaining key breeding populations of threatened species at Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve for use in future recovery programs
• monitoring and research of post-fire fauna populations and recolonisation of burnt areas
• protection of water quality and aquatic ecosystems by minimising sedimentation impacts and removing debris to ensure stream connectivity
• translocation of fish species where required to improve population numbers, and
• working collaboratively with other stakeholders and community groups to support weed control, monitoring and other restoration efforts.

Many of these activities will be ongoing as recovery from the fires continue. For example, biodiversity and ecosystem impact assessments and restoration works are likely to take decades.

For more, see Landcare and Bushfire Recovery.

Climate change and bushfire recovery

Climate change will be a significant challenge to the post-fire recovery of native ecosystems and biodiversity. The hotter and drier conditions will magnify post-fire pressures, reducing the ability of native animals to increase their populations and preventing the regeneration of native vegetation species. This may have significant consequences for the distribution and abundance, as well as the long-term viability, of some native species in post-fire landscapes. In areas severely impacted by fire, the added pressure of climate change may mean that some species and ecological communities will not be able to recover at all.

The greater occurrence of severe storms associated with climate change will also increase erosion in fire impacted areas. This will impact on aquatic ecosystems, reduce the presence of native vegetation and increase the spread of invasive plants.

One of the most significant impacts of climate change on post-fire recovery will be the increased risk of more frequent and more severe fires in the future (see Climate change). Even if ecosystems and biodiversity start to recover from one fire event, cumulative future fires are very likely to prevent recovery in the long term.

4.2.2
Impacts on flora

The impact of the Orroral Valley bushfire on the ACT’s flora species has been immense. The fire burnt significant areas of vegetation including threatened flora species and ecological communities, as well as non-threatened floral biodiversity. Some of the burnt flora species and communities are sensitive to fire, which is concerning for their ability to recover in the future, especially as many of these areas had also burnt in 2003, just 17 years earlier.

Threatened floral species and communities burnt by the fire include two ecological communities and five species listed under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Two of these species and two communities are also listed as threatened under the ACT Nature Conservation Act 2014. In addition, 17 nationally significant flora species are also known to be impacted by the fire. There is concern that threatened flora populations and extents will decline. Some populations may have been lost.

Five ecological communities within the Orroral Valley bushfire area have been identified as requiring post-fire monitoring and management. These include Snow Gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora), Alpine Ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis), Cypress Pine (Callitris spp.), Black Sallee (Eucalyptus stellulata), and Mountain Tea Tree (Leptospermum grandifolium) dominant grass and woodlands. Research has been undertaken on the impacts of the Orroral Valley bushfire on these and other communities in the Namadgi National Park and Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve. The research included six fire-sensitive and two threatened vegetation communities, and also assessed the recovery of those communities in the first 12–18 months after the fire. Selected main findings of the research are presented below.

Alpine Ash forest

• The fires burnt 67% of the Alpine Ash forest in Namadgi National Park.
• Alpine Ash trees suffered 99% mortality at high severity fire sites, 85% mortality at moderate severity fire sites and 49% mortality at low severity fire sites.
• Larger trees were more fire resistant, whereas post-2003 regrowth was more likely to be killed by fire.
• Alpine Ash seedlings appeared to be more abundant where there had been large living Alpine Ash trees pre-fire, although seedlings were also present (at very low densities) in post-2003 regrowth that re-burnt in 2020.
• 66% of the Alpine Ash in Namadgi has burnt twice in the last 18 years, and about 37% of the community appears to be in transition from dominance by Alpine Ash to dominance by other species (e.g. Mountain Gum and Snow Gum).
• Predicted increases in bushfire frequency under climate change are likely to further diminish the extent of Alpine Ash forest in Namadgi.

Black Sallee woodland 

• The fires burnt 79% of Black Sallee woodland in Namadgi National Park.
• Black Sallee trees are regenerating well, with seedlings observed at most sites and basal resprouting observed.
• Repeated bushfires have initiated structural changes in Black Sallee woodland, shifting from woodlands with larger individual trees to woodlands dominated by smaller, multi-stemmed trees of mallee form.

Jounama Snow Gum woodland

• The fires burnt 78% of Jounama Snow Gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora subsp. Debeuzevillei) woodland in Namadgi National Park.
• Jounama Snow Gums are regenerating well, with seedlings observed at most sites and basal resprouting observed.
• As with Black Sallee woodland, repeated bushfires have initiated structural changes in Jounama Snow Gum woodland with larger individual trees to woodlands dominated by smaller, multi-stemmed trees of mallee form.

Mountain Tea-tree heathland

• The fires burnt approximately 90% of the occurrence of Mountain Tea-tree thicket in Namadgi National Park.
• There was 100% mortality in high fire severity sites, and 48% mortality in low severity sites; almost all plants with any sign of trunk charring had been killed.
• Stands are regenerating via seedlings.
• The 2003 and 2020 fires appear to have resulted in the loss of some patches of Mountain Tea-tree thicket, and a reduction in size of many of the remaining patches.
• Predicted increases in bushfire frequency under climate change are likely to further diminish the extent of Mountain Tea-tree thickets in Namadgi.

Natural Temperate Grassland (threatened)

• The fires burnt approximately 75% of the Natural Temperate Grassland in Namadgi National Park.
• Natural Temperate Grassland has recovered quickly with little difference between burnt and unburnt sites within a year of the fires.
• The fire facilitated the germination and growth of exotic species such as Nodding Thistle.

Other monitoring programs have also found a strong response to the Orroral Valley bushfire, with some flora species appearing to benefit from the post-fire conditions. For example, over 256Monitoring results obtained from the Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate. individual records of orchids were recorded across 18 sites by volunteers from Canberra Orchid Society, including a new record for the Critically Endangered Brindabella Midge Orchid (Corunastylis ectopa).

These results show that whilst the response of flora communities varies, the vegetation of Namadgi National Park is generally recovering well. Monitoring observations show the prolific and spectacular post-fire growth of grasses and herbs, and vigorous basal and epicormic resprouting of most fire-impacted tree species. This has no doubt been facilitated by wetter-than-average conditions in the ACT since the fires.

It is also apparent that Namadgi National Park is undergoing a period of major ecological change in response to a changing climate and more frequent fire, with some flora communities likely to further diminish in the future. It is unknown at this stage what the long-term effects of these changes will be on the composition of native species and ecosystem structure and function within the park. As is generally the case with ecological change, it is likely that some species will benefit while others will be unable to survive in altered post-fire habitats.

4.2.3
Impacts on fauna

Recovery from the Orroral Valley bushfire will take decades for many fauna species. The fires caused the death or displacement of countless native fauna including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, aquatic species and invertebrates. For those animals that escaped the fire, the large-scale disturbance of vegetation and ecosystems, combined with post-fire pressures, will result in ongoing survival pressures. These include:

• greatly reduced availability of habitat such as arboreal, midstory and ground cover, and hollow bearing trees
• loss of food resources
• increased risk of predation by invasive animals such as foxes and cats which exploit the lack of vegetation cover
• increased grazing competition from invasive herbivores (such as deer, feral horses and pigs) for the reduced vegetation resources, and
• loss of aquatic breeding habitat through post-fire sedimentation.

These all reduce the ability of native fauna to persist and recover from severe fire events, leading to significantly altered fauna populations and distributions in some areas.

Impacts on some species of high importance due to their already threatened status are discussed below. However, there are many threatened fauna species that lack identified population locations and are only known to occupy the burn area from opportunistic sightings or historical records. This makes it difficult to assess the fire impacts on these species, as well as their post-fire recovery. It should also be noted that regardless of a species’ status, there will be many fauna populations severely impacted by the Orroral Valley bushfire. The recovery of both threatened and non-threatened species is critical to future ecosystem health and biodiversity in the ACT.

For more, see Bushfire Recovery of the Gang-Gang Cockatoo.

The Broad-toothed Rat

The Broad-toothed Rat is an endangered animal and a species of national concern. They are often found in Alpine Bogs and Fens – a threatened ecological community also impacted by bushfires. Of the 13 monitored locations of Broad-toothed Ratin Namadgi National Park, seven have been impacted by severe intensity fire, three by moderate intensity fire, and three remain unburnt. It is important that remnant populations and those impacted by moderate intensity fire are protected from increased predation to enable recolonisation of severely burnt sites as the ecosystem recovers.

Gliders

Two species of large gliders, the Greater Glider (Petauroides volans) and the Yellow-bellied Glider (Petaurus australis) are found within the Orroral Valley bushfire area. Both these species are listed as species of national concern due to fire impacting a large extent of their range across the country.

Recent surveys in Namadgi National Park identified three main areas where large gliders occur. The largest of these areas, which has the highest density of gliders, is in an unburnt region of the park (Bendora area of the Brindabella Range). The second area is in the Upper Cotter area of the Bimberi Wilderness and has been impacted by fire of moderate to low severity and retains much of its canopy cover. This means that most sites where Greater Gliders have been previously recorded did not burn in the Orroral Valley bushfire, and the northern part of Namadgi continues to support good populations of Greater Gliders.

The third area, around Booroomba Rocks and Honeysuckle Creek, has been impacted by moderate to high fire severity with extensive canopy destruction, and is the area of most concern for glider populations. If gliders survived the initial fire impacts they were likely highly susceptible to starvation during the weeks following the fire due to the loss of canopy leaves.

For more, see Greater Gliders in the ACT.

Reiks Crayfish

Reiks Crayfish (Euastacus reiki) is a poorly known species of mountain spiny crayfish that inhabits the tributaries and bogs in the upper Cotter catchment, upper Naas, Orroral and Gudgenby Valleys. It is estimated that 95% of its habitat in the ACT is within the burn area. The species is extremely vulnerable post-fire as poor water quality encourages them to emerge from their burrows, exposing them to increased risk of predation.

Two-spined Blackfish

The Two-spined Blackfish (Gadopsis bispinosus) is a threatened fish species found in the Upper Cotter catchment. Three of the five areas identified as important habitat in the ACT have been impacted by the Orroral Valley bushfire. The fire burnt at least the 40% of the Blackfish range in the ACT, particularly above Corin Dam. 

Following the fire, runoff from heavy rain caused significant impacts to water quality. Erosion from the burn area delivered sediment and ash into the river, smothering the spaces between the cobbles that Blackfish need to breed, find food, and shelter from predators and high flows. The sediment also made the river shallower and filled deep, cooler holes and runs that Blackfish depend on for refuges.

Monitoring of Blackfish populations has shown that the Orroral Valley bushfire reduced the Blackfish population by around 80% in a large proportion of their range. There was no significant recovery evident in 2021 mainly due to the large amount of sediment that is still impacting waterways in the burnt area. However, there are now signs of recovery with young Blackfish being recorded.

For more, see Two-spined Blackfish After the Orroral Valley Bushfire.

Macquarie Perch 

The Macquarie Perch (Macquaria australasica) is a threatened fish species also found in the Upper Cotter catchment. It is a species of national concern, with a significant proportion of its range burnt nationally during the 2019-20 Black Summer. The population of Macquarie Perch that extends from Corin Reservoir upstream in the Cotter River is an important insurance population and one of only two populations in the ACT. This area has been subject to high severity fire. Like the Two-spined Blackfish, the biggest threat to Macquarie Perch comes from post-fire conditions that can degrade water quality.

For more, see Post-Fire Recovery of Mountain Galaxias.

4.2.4
Aquatic ecosystems and water quality

The Orroral Valley bushfire burn area includes the southern region of the Cotter River catchment, an area of high value for aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity, including listed threatened species. The Cotter River catchment is also a vital source for approximately 85% of the ACT’s water supply. The network of wetlands and waterways in the catchment flow into the Cotter River and the Corin, Bendora and Cotter storage dams.

Within the Upper Cotter catchment, the Orroral Valley bushfire burnt 99% of the Corin dam catchment and 29% of the Bendora dam catchment. The Lower Cotter catchment was unaffected by the fires. The severity of the fires was highly variable in both water storage catchments, but extensive areas of the Upper Cotter burnt at very high severity. Fires that burn with high severity are known to considerably increase the likelihood of degraded water quality.

Post-fire rain, erosion and sedimentation

The impacts of the Orroral Valley bushfire on aquatic ecosystems was compounded by severe storms on 7-8 February 2020 and high rainfall between 10 and 14 February 2020 (around 158 mm). In areas where fire had removed most of the vegetation and ground cover, the high rainfall mobilised large amounts of sediment and ash which entered waterways in Namadgi National Park and Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve. This resulted in greatly degraded water quality and aquatic ecosystem health, including the smothering of habitat required for many aquatic species. In extreme cases, post-fire runoff can degrade water quality to the point where fish kills occur.

High rainfall continued in the ACT with 2020 to 2022 experiencing above average rainfall. Whilst beneficial to the recovery of vegetation, the increased rainfall has meant that waterways within and downstream of the burn area have suffered ongoing high rates of sedimentation. This is having an ongoing impact on aquatic ecosystem health and biodiversity as evidenced by the population decline of species such as the Two-spined Blackfish (see Impacts on Fauna).

Post-fire impacts on drinking water catchments

Following the Orroral Valley bushfire, there was much concern over water quality impacts. Icon Water is responsible for the management of drinking water catchments in the ACT. Ongoing monitoring of water quality in the Cotter Catchment water storages showed that water quality in these storage reservoirs was not immediately impacted by the fire but this changed with the post-fire rainfall events that followed. To minimise the post-fire rainfall impacts on the ACT’s water supply, sediment traps were installed to reduce sediment movement in drainage lines and silt curtains deployed on Corin and Bendora reservoirs to contain ash and suspended material.

In the years since the Orroral Valley bushfire, it is apparent that the immediate severe impact to water quality caused by the post-fire rainfall has since improved. However, the water quality in the Corin and Bendora storage reservoirs is likely to vary in response to post-fire sediment inputs. The steep slopes within severely fire impacted areas have remained relatively stable post-fire and have continued to develop good ground coverage of vegetation re-growth which is helping to stabilise the soils and mitigate erosion. This will help maintain water quality in the future.

Post-fire management

It is important that post-fire impacts on waterways are mitigated to improve the health of aquatic ecosystems and to protect biodiversity. The ACT Government is undertaking a range of activities with key partners such as Icon Water to protect water quality and restore riparian zones. These include:

• control of erosion for high priority streams
• soil stabilisation works
• assessments of water quality
• installation of water filtering infrastructure in key catchment locations including the installation of coir logs in high erosion areas
• restoration of riparian habitat, and
• weed control along key waterways.

Sedimentation control and restoration of riparian areas will greatly benefit the recovery of threatened aquatic species such as fish, amphibians, and platypus.

4.3
Impacts of Black Summer on community health and wellbeing

This section draws on published literature, government reports and data, and analysis of research data to describe the effects of fire and bushfire smoke on humans. Common views are illustrated by quotesWritten quotes were collected from community members living in and around the ACT as part of the Bushfire Health Study. They can be identified throughout the report by bold italicised text. Minor edits have been made to some quotes to correct spelling. from community members sharing their lived experience, and that of their friends’ and family’s, during this time. Details in this section are drawn from a report on the bushfire impacts led by Dr Rachael Rodney-Harris.

During Black Summer, bushfire smoke from both the ACT and NSW fires severely impacted Canberra’s air quality (see Air). Over the 91 days of summer, air pollution monitored at the Monash Station in Tuggeranong exceeded the national standards for health on 56 days, with 42 of these days above the hazardous rating (Figure 4). On 1 January, PM_2.5 pollution levels were at around 25 times the threshold to be considered hazardous. During days of severe air pollution, Canberrans were advised to stay indoors whenever possible.

4.3.1
Physical health impacts 

Bushfire and bushfire smoke can severely disrupt daily life and have considerable effects on physical health, mental health, and medical services. These effects of bushfire can persist well beyond the fire being extinguished or the smoke having cleared. 

Exposure to bushfires and bushfire smoke related air pollution can have considerable short- and long-term adverse health outcomes including burns, heat exhaustion, dehydration and psychological trauma. High levels of bushfire smoke related air pollution can impair respiratory and cardiovascular functioning, exacerbate respiratory disease (including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), and alter immune function.

Depending on the level of pollution and exposure, many people will experience subclinical, limited or short-term symptoms; whereas others will have more severe symptoms requiring medical intervention. High levels of fine particulate matter present in smoke have been associated with elevated rates of hospital presentations and admissions, especially for cardiovascular and respiratory conditions including asthma.

Across Australia, hospital presentations generally increased on or immediately following days of more intense air pollution. Bushfire smoke has also been associated with increased mortality, and an estimated 340,000 deaths can be attributed to bushfire smoke globally each year. The total smoke-related physical health costs of the 2019–20 bushfire period have been estimated to be AU$1.95 billion.

The effects of smoke can be more severe in vulnerable populations such as the very young, older adults, pregnant people and those with pre-existing medical conditions including cardiovascular disease or respiratory conditions. Urban exposure to bushfire smoke is generally brief (a matter of days at most). However, the prolonged exposure to poor air quality experienced in Canberra and other urban centres throughout the 2019-20 bushfire season may be more hazardous. The long-term health impacts of such exposure are not well understood.

Bushfire smoke had acute negative impacts on the physical health of almost all (97%) people surveyed living in and around the ACT during the 2019-20 bushfire season. People experienced eye and throat irritation, coughing and respiratory symptoms such as wheezing and breathlessness, and headaches. Almost a third of Canberrans (31%) reported worsening of an existing physical health problem and 16% had difficulty managing an existing health condition as a result of smoke and/or fires. 

Concern about long-term health effects

In addition to the acute effects experienced, people are concerned about the potential long-term health effects of prolonged exposure to hazardous levels of bushfire smoke. Community members reported developing enduring adverse conditions following the fires that have persisted beyond the period affected by smoke. They are worried about the potential impact of these on their ongoing health, including susceptibility to other conditions such as COVID-19.

“Still feeling effects of bushfire smoke, with respiratory symptoms, cough and sinus irritation.  Quite a few of my friends experienced this too, and it is not severe enough to seek medical advice.  I am worried that the bushfire exposure makes people more vulnerable to corona virus lung damage” 

Groups that were particularly concerned about the long-term health effects of smoke exposure included parents and pregnant people. 60% of parents and carers said their choice of behaviours was influenced by their children or dependants, particularly parents of younger children. This was likely due to a combination of concern for health and the challenges of keeping children entertained indoors for long periods.

“My primary concern and the anxiety I felt during this time was/is for the short- and long-term health impacts on my children…, rather than myself. … The secondary issue to this was the strain of being confined/confining my children (toddler in particular) over an extended period of time. I felt trapped in our house as there didn’t seem to be many alternative indoor options…”

Pregnant people were exceptionally concerned about the effects of fire on their pregnancy and baby, but found information hard to find, further heightening anxiety and stress. 83% of pregnant people surveyed in the ACT said their pregnancy influenced their health protection decisions, with all but one indicating they were more responsive to smoke because of their pregnancy.

There is limited information about the effects of bushfire smoke on maternal and child health. Possible associations have been identified between exposure to bushfire smoke and adverse outcomes such as decreased birth weights, premature birth, and increased risk of gestational diabetes. However, more robust research is needed on the effects of fire and smoke on pregnant people and their babies.

“Being pregnant, I was highly concerned about my health and the impacts on my baby. Information seemed scarce and restricting myself indoors so frequently was concerning and disruptive to my wellbeing.”

4.3.2
Mental health and wellbeing

Bushfires, smoke, and other natural disasters can affect the mental health and wellbeing of community members and those on the frontline. During the event, feelings of anxiety and distress may be driven by the unpredictability of the situation, as well as the perceived and actual threat to life and wellbeing. After the event, individuals may continue to experience distress because of personal, material, and/or environmental loss, as well as post-traumatic stress.

In the months following the 2019—20 bushfire season (March—April 2020), the Bushfire Health Study led by the Australian National University identified 55% of respondents self-reporting symptoms of anxiety (45.3%) and/or feeling depressed (21.4%) as a result of the smoke and its effects on daily life. As well, 31.9% of people reported elevated levels of psychological distress, while 10.5% of people reported clinical levels of depression and 14.3% of people reported clinical levels of anxiety. Mental health impacts were consistently higher for women than men.

Significant self-reported rates of anxiety and depression were revealed in the Living well in the ACT region: Exploring the wellbeing of ACT residents in 2019-20 study conducted by the University of Canberra. This study was conducted in April-May 2020, finding that 36% of ACT residents often felt anxious or worried during the fires, and a further 52% reported feeling anxious occasionally. Additionally:

• 38% of participants reported sometimes feeling helplessness
• 74% reported being worried about the safety of people they cared about during the fires
• 36% reported that the smoke and/or fires worsened existing depression or anxiety
• 33% indicated that they triggered new depression or anxiety, and
• 26% reported that the smoke/fires triggered traumatic memories or emotions from previous fires.

The majority of ACT residents also reported that they had access to emotional support (63%). However, younger people were more likely than older people to report fires triggering psychological distress, consistent with what has been seen in NSW. Following the bushfire, few ACT residents (10%) reported persistent mental health challenges because of, or worsened by, the fires. A much larger proportion of participants reported experiencing concern about the environmental impacts of the fires (78%) and the prospect of there being future bushfire seasons like Black Summer (71%).

Consistent findings were also reported in the Impact of the 2019/2020 bushfires on a cohort of older adults report conducted as part of thePATH Through Life Study. In this study of a longitudinal cohort of ACT residents, people aged 59-65 reported worsened mental health during the period of the bushfires but that symptoms returned to pre-bushfire levels following the bushfires.

Participants also reported feelings of distress associated with being on alert and having to pack up and prepare for evacuation, particularly people with prior exposure to major bushfires, such as the 2003 Canberra bushfires. These participants reported feeling fearful, not being able to relax, or not knowing when it would end. Feelings of helplessness were common, in terms of being able to assist and support friends or contribute to efforts to fight the fires. Participants also expressed fears for friends and family, including for those on the frontline, and fears about the possible negative health effects of prolonged bushfire smoke exposure.

“Felt anxious but took steps to manage it. Turned off news shows, mindfulness practice. Undertook activities to distract myself.  Looking out the window allowed me to see the smoke coming with the easterly, complete outdoor tasks and get inside before the worst of the smoke arrived.”

“I felt extremely low during the period – I was so unwell and felt incredibly depressed at the thought that perhaps this is how all summers will be from now on. I didn’t get to celebrate Christmas or travel to see my family, and I felt robbed of what should’ve been a really happy time. I also felt so powerless to stop the destruction all around me, and hopeless at the thought that things could be like this forever.”

“I felt more anxious about the fires specifically and the climate more generally than I did about the smoke.  I also care for my …mother with dementia, but she lives in her own home alone …, a lot of my anxiety was about her safety and evacuation.”

For more, see Life in the Haze.

4.4
Fire risk trends and projections

4.4.1
Fire management practices

Fire management aims to reduce the risk of fires to human and environmental assets. Fuel management is the primary means for land and fire managers to reduce the occurrence and severity of future fires. There are multiple fuel management strategies used in Australia, with varying levels of effectiveness. Each strategy has a diverse and complex set of challenges, benefits and limitations.

Fuel management in the ACT occurs on both public and private land. Fire management on public land is the responsibility of several agencies, including the ACT Emergency Services Agency, the ACT Rural Fire Service, and ACT Parks and Conservation Service. On private land, there are no formal objectives, but fuel management is usually undertaken to reduce fuel loads, remove dead material and reduce stubble, including through the ACT Emergency Services Agency Fire FarmWise program.

All fire-related fuel management activities on public land in the ACT are guided by the Strategic Bushfire Management Plan which establishes a framework for the comprehensive management of fire and fire-related activities for protecting human life, property, assets and the environment.

Some general techniques used to reduce future fire risks are described below.

• Prescribed burning is ‘the controlled application of fire under specified environmental conditions to a pre-determined area and at the time, intensity, and rate of spread required to attain planned resource management objectives, undertaken in specified environmental conditions’.
• Mechanical fuel treatments involve the use of machinery to alter vegetation structure for the purpose of reducing bushfire fuel hazard. Mechanical treatments are predominantly undertaken as mulching (or masticating), slashing (or mowing), or thinning.
• Fire suppression efforts are aimed at limiting the size and spread of bushfires and to reduce direct impacts on people and assets. Suppression efforts can involve a range of resources including on-ground firefighting crews, aerial suppression teams and remote monitoring of fires.

4.4.2
Fire risks in the ACT

Global shifts in climate will result in an increase in the number of days per year of weather conducive to dangerous fire spread. The ACT, like much of Australia, is predicted to have an increased risk of fire over the next 50-60 years. Key aspects of fire regime changes are i) the area burnt by bushfires and ii) changes in the number of fires an area experiences within a particular time frame (fire frequency).

A report by the FLARE Wildfire Research at the University of Melbourne was provided to OCSE to understand fire risks in the ACT. There is strong evidence that climate change will increase future bushfire risk in the ACT and surrounding regions by leading to an increase in fire weather conditions. Within the ACT, multiple studies indicate increasing dangerous fire weather. Increasing fire danger is likely to mean an earlier start to the fire season and a longer overall season.

In all the climate models used within the FLARE report, the annual area burnt around the ACT increased. Modelling shows that the highest fire frequency areas are outside of – but surrounding – the ACT. These areas may provide ignition sources for fires that spread into the ACT, particularly around the urban edge of Canberra. Some areas within the west of the ACT such as within Namadgi National Park, are predicted to experience an increase in fire frequency. This increase in fire frequency within ACT’s native forests may also lead to increased impacts on human communities on the urban edge.

Changes in fire regimes are likely to result in an increased risk to the environment as well as human life, property, and health (physical and mental). Previous studies have analysed the risk reduction benefits of various fire management approaches and found that:

• extensive fuel treatments reduce landscape risk whereas the absence of fuel treatments for extended periods increase risk
• the most cost-effective fuel management program tested in a simulation framework included fuel treatments in both the ACT and neighbouring NSW
• increasing the rate of fire suppression and decreasing the response time of suppression crews reduced bushfire damages, and
• weather had a consistently larger effect on the area burnt and related risk compared to the effects of prescribed burning.

Climatic changes are likely to overwhelm any reduction in fuel loads or shifting vegetation communities. Under shifting climates and fire regimes, conservation land management is going to provide the greatest challenge for the ACT. Intensification of fire regimes will increase the pressure on many species and communities, potentially resulting in shifting ecological formations and potentially permanent changes in ecological systems.